The Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN) is the largest umbrella organisation representing the interests of autochthonous, national, and linguistic minorities in Europe. Founded in 1949, it currently brings together more than 100 member organisations (MOs) from 36 European countries, actively working to defend the rights and promote the cultural, linguistic, and political recognition of minority communities. FUEN’s mission is not only to preserve Europe's diversity by protecting minority identities but also to uphold international human rights standards and ensure the inclusion of minorities in the political and social fabric of their respective states.
Adhering to its mandate, FUEN has consistently supported the Turkish minority in Greece represented by the member organisations Federation of Western Thrace Turks in Europe (ABTTF), Western Thrace Minority University Graduates Association (WTMUGA), and ROISDER (Rhodes, Kos and the Dodecanese Turks Culture and Solidarity Association). These organisations have been continuously reporting challenges to their minority identity, and the FUEN Congress has adopted a series of targeted resolutions, calling for justice, legal recognition, and protection from discrimination and repression. By providing a forum for elevating minority concerns to the attention of the Council of Europe, the EU, the UN, and national governments, FUEN reinforces the legitimacy and urgency of these claims.
For the period 2013-2024, the ABTTF and WTMUGA have submitted 11 Resolutions, and since 2016, ROISDER has introduced an additional 7 Resolutions. Although the ethnic Turks from Western Thrace and on the islands face many similar challenges, their situations differ. Overall, the core demands across these resolutions include:
* Recognition of the Turkish minority ethnic identity in Greece
* Restoration of the autonomous education and reopening of the schools and kindergartens providing bilingual education in the Greek islands
* Protection of the cultural and religious heritage of the Ottoman Turks
* Elimination of hate speech and discrimination against the Turkish minority
* Restoration of religious autonomy - freedom of religious practice and restoration of the right of the Turkish minority to elect Muftis (religious leaders)
* Freedom of association and the possibility to include the words "minority" and "Turkish" in the names of the organisations.
Despite numerous FUEN appeals to the government, the Greek state has not taken any action to address these issues.
Greece and Turkey share a complex history rooted in the Ottoman occupation of Byzantine and Greek territories that began in the mid-14th century. The territory of Western Thrace was occupied by the Ottomans between 1363 and 1364 under Murad I, while the islands of Rhodes and Kos, part of the Dodecanese archipelago, were conquered much later, in 1522. Under Ottoman rule, Greeks and other Christians were tolerated under the millet system; however, they were regarded as inferior and subjected to various restrictions.
In the aftermath of the First Balkan War (1912–1913), the Ottoman Empire lost Western Thrace, though the region was not fully ceded to Greece until 1920. The Treaty of Lausanne (July 1924), which concluded World War I between Turkey and the Allied Powers and defined the borders of modern Turkey, further reshaped the region. Under its provisions, Turkey renounced sovereignty over the Dodecanese islands in favor of Italy. Only after the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 did the Dodecanese formally pass to Greece, when Italy ceded the islands. At that time, approximately 6,000 Turks lived there, mainly on Kos and Rhodes, and the Treaty of Lausanne had guaranteed them certain rights as a minority population.
Since the establishment of the modern Greek and Turkish states, disputes over territory and administration have been constant. This tension culminated in the compulsory exchange of populations in 1923: ethnic Turks from Greece were sent to Turkey, and Greeks from Turkey to Greece. Exceptions were made for Turkish minorities in Western Thrace and the Greek minority in Istanbul.
After Rhodes and Kos came under Greek sovereignty in 1947, the Turkish population on the islands faced serious difficulties. Greek authorities refused to recognise rights guaranteed under the Treaty of Lausanne, claiming the islands had been under Italian rule when the treaty was signed. As conditions worsened, many Turks were forced to leave their homes and migrate to Turkey.
Relations between Greece and Turkey remained relatively stable until the mid-20th century, when the Cyprus question reignited tensions. In 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom — violent anti-Greek riots in Turkey — broke out partly in reaction to escalating conflict over Cyprus, further straining bilateral relations. Around the same time, Turks leaving Greece were required to sign documents barring their return, creating widespread fears of statelessness. The situation of Turkish communities on Rhodes and Kos deteriorated further after the Greek military junta seized power in 1967.
From 1955 to 1998, Article 19 of the Greek Citizenship Law allowed the state to revoke the nationality of people of non-Greek origin who left the country without intending to return. This measure affected many Turks, both in Western Thrace and in the Dodecanese. Even after the repeal of Article 19, many have not regained their identity documents or passports.
The suppression of education and cultural rights also contributed to the erosion of minority life. In 1972, bilingual schools were closed and never reopened. The Süleymaniye Madrassa, one of the last institutions teaching in Turkish on Rhodes, was renamed the 13th City Primary School of Rhodes, and Turkish-language instruction was permanently banned. At the same time, classes on Islam were suspended, undermining both the religious rights of the community and the opportunity for children to maintain their mother tongue. These policies accelerated the cultural assimilation of the Turkish population on Rhodes and Kos.
To this day, the Turkish minority in both Western Thrace and the Dodecanese faces xenophobia, prejudice, violence, and legal or administrative obstacles. Yet, while minority rights are heavily curtailed in both regions, the Turkish population of the Dodecanese remains in a particularly disadvantaged position compared to their counterparts in Western Thrace.
Currently, the Turkish minority of both Western Thrace and the Dodecanese islands continues to experience challenges in various fields of life, as Greece signed but never ratified the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) and is not a signatory to the European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages, either. Hence, the Greek government continues to violate:
The right to identity of the Turkish minority, claiming that there are “no Turks” living on the islands. The Turkish ethnic identity is not recognised, and the minority is referred to as the “Muslim” population, which in fact disregards the differences between the different Muslim communities in Greece. This policy undermines the community’s ability to openly self-identify and sustain its cultural and linguistic heritage. It also isolates the Dodecanese Turks from the protections granted to other recognised minorities in Europe.
The right of freedom of religion. The Turkish community is deprived of the possibility to choose their own preachers. The Turkish Muslim Foundation Properties are taxed heavily and often sold and destroyed by force, violating the rules imposed by the religion that such properties cannot be bought, sold, acquired, or shared as heritage. These restrictions weaken community control over religious life and institutions. They also threaten the survival of long-established cultural and religious practices tied to communal endowments (vakifs).
The right to culture and cultural heritage, with religious monuments and mosques not being preserved or restored. As a result, important historic sites have fallen into disrepair, depriving the community of spaces central to its collective memory. The neglect of these monuments also erases part of the islands’ multicultural history.
The right to association, as Greece does not allow such organisations to be established by the Turkish minority. This prevents the community from forming legal entities that could represent its interests, advocate for rights, or organise cultural activities. It further limits participation in civic and political life, leaving the minority without institutional channels to express its concerns.
The right to citizenship, as the state does not support Greek citizens of Turkish origin who have lost their citizenship under Article 19 of the Greek Citizenship Law in regaining it. Thousands of individuals remain stateless or face difficulties in securing official documentation. This lack of recognition affects access to education, employment, and healthcare, perpetuating long-term marginalisation.
The right to education, as there are currently no bilingual Greek–Turkish schools operating in the Dodecanese islands. Today, Turkish communities in Rhodes and Kos rely on informal and community-led initiatives, such as Sunday religious classes, cultural associations, and dance lessons, to maintain their language and heritage. While there has been some discussion about offering afternoon Turkish-language courses, no formal programs have been established, leaving cultural activities as the main means of preserving the language.
The right to equal treatment, since the Turkish minority in the Dodecanese does not enjoy the same level of recognition and protection as the Turkish community in Western Thrace. While the latter has access to bilingual education and certain minority rights under the Treaty of Lausanne, the Dodecanese Turks are excluded from comparable guarantees. This unequal approach creates a discriminatory double standard that further marginalises the community.
As Greece is a party to several key international human rights instruments and treaties, the state’s treatment of the Turkish minority in both Western Thrace and the Dodecanese islands demonstrates a violation of international obligations, taken under these binding agreements. Below, the specific instruments are listed for each corresponding violation.
Right to identity – Greece’s refusal to recognise the Turkish ethnic identity of the Dodecanese minority breaches Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), Protocol No. 12 to the ECHR (prohibition of discrimination), and Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), all of which Greece has ratified.
Right to equal treatment – The application of different standards to the Turkish minority in the Dodecanese compared to those in Western Thrace violates Articles 14 and 26 of the ECHR, and Article 26 of the ICCPR (equality before the law).
Right to education – The absence of bilingual Greek–Turkish schools and denial of mother-tongue instruction contravene Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the ECHR (right to education) and Article 27 ICCPR (minority rights).
Right to freedom of religion – State interference in the appointment of preachers and the management of Muslim foundations (vakifs) violates Article 9 ECHR (freedom of thought, conscience, and religion), Article 18 ICCPR (freedom of religion), and Articles 37–45 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) protecting Muslim religious and charitable institutions.
Right to culture and cultural heritage – The neglect and destruction of mosques and monuments breaches Article 27 ICCPR, Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (right to participate in cultural life), and the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972), to which Greece is a party.
Right to association – The refusal to register minority organisations violates Article 11 ECHR (freedom of assembly and association) and Article 22 ICCPR. A striking example is the Bekir-Ousta and Others v. Greece judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (2007), where the Court found Greece in violation of Article 11 ECHR for refusing to register the Evros Prefecture Minority Youth Association. Nearly two decades later, Greek authorities have still not implemented these rulings (Tourkiki Enosi Xanthis and Emin and Others), despite repeated calls by the Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers. This persistent non-compliance illustrates a structural refusal to recognize associations using the terms “Turkish” or “minority,” effectively undermining freedom of association and equality before the law.
Right to citizenship – Greece’s failure to restore nationality to those deprived of it under Article 19 of the Citizenship Law conflicts with Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Article 24 ICCPR (right of every child to acquire a nationality).
Repeated appeals, monitoring, and resolutions over the past decades have failed to secure tangible improvements for the Turkish minority in Greece. Instead, the Greek authorities continue to rely on legal loopholes, administrative delays, and denial of recognition to avoid compliance with their obligations under European and international law. Symbolic commitments without enforcement have allowed systemic discrimination, loss of citizenship, and cultural erosion to persist unchecked.
What is urgently needed is a shift from declarations to binding obligations. Greece must be held accountable for its international commitments, including the Treaty of Lausanne, the European Convention on Human Rights, and UN human rights instruments it has ratified. Failure to act risks not only the accelerated assimilation of the Turkish minority in Western Thrace and the Dodecanese but also the undermining of European credibility in upholding minority rights and democratic values.
The ongoing denial of identity, suppression of education, restrictions on religious freedom, and administrative practices that produce statelessness have created conditions of long-term exclusion. The situation is further aggravated by the political stigmatisation of the Turkish minority’s representatives, notably the Peace and Friendship Party (Dostluk Eşitlik Barış Partisi), which continues to face hostility and exclusion from mainstream political discourse. According to the Federation of Western Thrace Turks in Europe (ABTTF), this stigmatisation severely limits the community’s effective participation in public life and reinforces their marginalisation. ABTTF has repeatedly raised these issues before international bodies, including its submission to the UN Human Rights Committee in October 2024, documenting Greece’s ongoing non-compliance with the Bekir-Ousta judgment and related violations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. If these issues remain unresolved, the result will be the irreversible loss of the Turkish community’s cultural and linguistic heritage, the deepening of interethnic tensions, and a dangerous precedent for the treatment of other minority groups in Europe.
Therefore, FUEN calls for:
To the Greek Government
Officially recognise the Turkish minority and guarantee their right to self-identification, in line with international legal standards.
Reopen and support bilingual schools, restore religious autonomy, and respect the community’s right to elect its Muftis.
Reinstate citizenship rights for those deprived under Article 19 and ensure equal access to documents, education, and public services.
To the International Community (EU, Council of Europe, UN)
Establish clear monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to ensure Greece complies with the ECHR, ICCPR, and the Treaty of Lausanne.
Link EU accession benefits, funding, and policy support to verifiable progress on minority rights and anti-discrimination measures.
Provide targeted financial and technical assistance to preserve the cultural and religious heritage of the Turkish minority.
To Civil Society (Greek, Turkish, European NGOs and minority organisations)
Strengthen advocacy alliances to amplify minority voices at national and European levels and pursue legal remedies before international courts.
Foster intercultural dialogue and grassroots initiatives that reduce prejudice and xenophobia and foster social cohesion.
Document, preserve, and promote the linguistic, cultural, and religious traditions of the Turkish minority to prevent irreversible cultural loss.
Council of Europe. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Strasbourg, 5 November 1992. https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages
Council of Europe. European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Rome, 4 November 1950. https://www.echr.coe.int/
Council of Europe. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM). Strasbourg, 1 February 1995. https://www.coe.int/en/web/minorities
Council of Europe. Protocol No. 1 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Paris, 20 March 1952. https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf
Council of Europe. Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Rome, 4 November 2000. https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=177
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), 2007, Bekir-Ousta and Others v. Greece, Application No. 35151/05, Judgment of 11 October 2007. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-82580
Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN). Resolutions (2013–2024). FUEN, https://fuen.org/en
Federation of Western Thrace Turks in Europe (ABTTF), 2024, “Comment to the UN Human Rights Committee (CCPR) on Greece.” Submitted 24 October 2024. https://www.abttf.org
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, 1966. United Nations Treaty Collection. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, 1966. United Nations Treaty Collection. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights
Paris Peace Treaties. Signed in Paris, 1947. United Nations Treaty Collection. https://treaties.un.org
Treaty of Lausanne. Signed at Lausanne, 24 July 1923. League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 28. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/lausanne.asp
UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention). Paris, 16 November 1972. https://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, 10 December 1948. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights
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