BETWEEN LAW AND REALITY: THE STRUGGLE OF THE MACEDONIAN MINORITY IN ALBANIA

FUEN in Support of National Minorities

The Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN) is the largest umbrella organisation representing the interests of autochthonous, national, and linguistic minorities in Europe. Founded in 1949, it currently brings together more than 100 member organisations (MOs) from 36 European countries, actively working to defend the rights and promote the cultural, linguistic, and political recognition of minority communities.

FUEN’s mission is not only to preserve the diversity of Europe through the protection of minority identities, but also to uphold international human rights standards and ensure the inclusion of minorities in the political and social fabric of their respective states. By providing a forum where minority concerns can be elevated to the attention of the Council of Europe, the EU, the UN, and national governments, FUEN reinforces the legitimacy and urgency of these claims.

FUEN has consistently advocated for the rights of the Macedonian minority in Albania, raising awareness about the situation of the minority and calling for justice, legal recognition, and protection from discrimination and repression. Over the past eight years, the FUEN Congress has adopted six resolutions, proposed by the member Macedonian Association “Ilinden” Tirana, in support of their rightful demands for respect and protection of rights as provided by the Council of Europe Framework Convention for Protection of National Minorities, to which Albania is a signatory.

Since 2016, the Macedonian minority in Albania has been calling upon the international community to support their claims before the Albanian government for:

* Recognition of their identity and adequate protection and implementation of the minority rights, including in territorial and administrative reforms

* Fostering the equality of the Macedonian minority culture and language in the field of education, media, and public communication with local authorities

* Ensuring Macedonian minority rights in political representation and active involvement in the decision-making processes at national and local levels.

Emphasising that the national minorities’ rights must be upheld according to the European and international legal standards, FUEN has repeatedly called on European institutions, the United Nations, and the OSCE to take concrete actions in support of the Macedonian minority in Albania and has urged its member organisations to cooperate in advocacy efforts.

The Macedonian minority in Albania: A Historical Overview

The partition of Ottoman lands in the region of Macedonia following the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918) left the area divided among several Balkan nation-states. In 1919, under the Treaty of Versailles, the regions of Gollobordë and Mala Prespa were incorporated into Albania.

Prior to the Second World War, the Macedonian question had limited political relevance in Albania. During the war, pro-Yugoslav Macedonian communist partisans actively advanced the recognition of Macedonians as a distinct community. Following the entry of the Red Army into the Balkans and the establishment of communist regimes, official policy in the region supported this recognition. In 1945, the Slavic-speaking minority in Albania was formally acknowledged as Macedonian.

After the fall of communism in 1998, many Macedonians from Mala Prespa and Golo Brdo crossed illegally into the Republic of Macedonia. At that time, Albanian Foreign Minister Paskal Milo stated regarding the Macedonian minority: “After World War II, we know this minority as Macedonian. I’d rather not elaborate on why we chose this way, but the Communist regime made this decision and it’s difficult for us now to change that.”

The 2011 Albanian census recorded 5,512 self-declared Macedonians, representing 0.20 per cent of the country’s population. The Macedonian minority resides primarily in Prespa and Gollobordë (Golo Brdo in Macedonian), as well as the village of Vërnik. These areas, adjacent to the territory of North Macedonia, are among the poorest in Albania. Many Macedonians from these regions sustain themselves as day labourers in the Republic of North Macedonia. The community is religiously diverse: Macedonians in the Prespa region are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians, while those in Gollobordë are mostly Muslim.

According to the 2023 Albanian census, 2,281 individuals self-identified as ethnic Macedonians—a sharp decline from the 2011 figure. While mother-tongue education exists in certain areas, its scope remains limited and wider implementation has lagged. Cultural life continues through community organisations, media outlets, and festivals. Political participation is minimal but gradually increasing, and the community continues to voice demands for rights and recognition. However, although the recognition of the Macedonian ethnic minority is restricted to the region of Mala Prespa, it has to be noted that Albania remains the only neighbouring country to formally recognise it.

The Challenges

As mentioned above, the Macedonians in Albania feel deprived of minority rights guaranteed by international instruments—such as the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Council of Europe), the European Convention on Human Rights, and the OSCE Copenhagen Document (1990)—as well as by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 27). These rights are also enshrined in the Law on Protection of National Minorities in the Republic of Albania (2017). However, the Council of Europe’s Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities have repeatedly noted gaps in Albania’s implementation. These shortcomings stem both from discriminatory attitudes of Albanian authorities at national and local levels, and from weak enforcement of legally guaranteed provisions.

The following section outlines the specific challenges faced by the Macedonian minority under three thematic lines: (1) recognition of identity and implementation of rights, (2) cultural and language rights, and (3) political representation and participation in decision-making.

Recognition of identity and implementation of minority rights

A key challenge for the Macedonian minority in Albania concerns the recognition of their ethnic identity and the full implementation of rights under national and international frameworks. Scholars Ljubica Djordjević and Zenaida Zaimi (ECMI, 2019) have observed that while the 2017 Law on the Protection of National Minorities represents an important legal milestone, it too often defers the substance of minority rights to secondary legislation and decisions of the Council of Ministers. This excessive reliance on executive acts weakens legal certainty and delays the implementation of key guarantees, including language use, education, and participation rights. They further argue that the Law’s framework does not fully correspond to contemporary standards of diversity management and integration policy, remaining rooted in a more traditional and state-centred understanding of minority protection. These concerns have been echoed in resolutions by FUEN as well as in opinions of the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention.

Recognition across the entire territory of Albania
Human rights monitoring long noted that Albania effectively recognised Macedonians mainly in the Mala Prespa/Pustec area, with weaker recognition in Golo Brdo and Gora. The 2017 Law on the Protection of National Minorities (No. 96/2017, Art. 3(2)) explicitly listed Macedonians among Albania’s nine national minorities, improving their formal legal status. However, the Council of Europe (2019 Opinion) stressed that this recognition must be matched with equal implementation throughout the country. In practice, recognition continues to be localised, pending the adoption of effective bylaws and thresholds.

Equal enjoyment of minority rights across regions
While Macedonians in Mala Prespa report relatively good implementation, those in Golo Brdo and Gora face weaker protection. Civil society groups such as Ilinden Tirana regard this as discriminatory, stressing that minority rights should apply uniformly across Albania. This aligns with recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, who emphasised equal treatment regardless of geographical concentration.

Restoring municipal status to Golo Brdo and Gora
The 2014 territorial-administrative reform (Law 115/2014) reduced municipalities from 384 to 61, dissolving Macedonian-majority communes in Golo Brdo (Trebisht, Ostreni, Steblevo) and elsewhere. According to the Macedonian community and the Advisory Committee of the Framework Convention, this reform:

- Diluted political representation, leaving Macedonians without seats in Bulqizë or Kukës councils;

- Stalled local development, with persistent deficits in infrastructure and basic services;

- Marginalised communities, distancing them further from decision-making.

Cultural and Language Rights

Macedonian organisations, supported by observations from Council of Europe monitoring bodies, stress the gap between legal guarantees and actual practice in cultural and language rights.

Use of the Macedonian language
The 2017 Minority Law allows the use of minority languages in municipalities where the community exceeds 20%. This right is effectively applied only in Mala Prespa/Pustec, but not in Golo Brdo and Gora due to the 2014 administrative reform, which diluted minority presence below the threshold. The Council of Europe Advisory Committee has noted that this undermines the practical enjoyment of linguistic rights.

Mother-tongue education
Macedonian-language schooling is firmly established in Pustec, but in Golo Brdo and Gora, it remains sporadic and largely dependent on civil society. OSCE/ODIHR reports and Macedonian associations have consistently urged Albania to ensure regular and state-supported Macedonian-language education throughout the country, in line with international standards.

Support for cultural activities
Macedonian associations report insufficient funding from the Ministry of Culture, hindering cultural events and publications. While some activities are maintained in Pustec (often with EU cross-border project funding), initiatives in Golo Brdo and Gora lack sustainable support. The Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention has called for more equitable allocation of state resources to minority cultural initiatives.

Media and broadcasting rights
Unlike Greek and Serbian minorities, Macedonians lack programming on RTSH (state television). They rely mainly on local initiatives (Radio Prespa) or media from North Macedonia. Council of Europe monitoring reports highlight this imbalance, noting that the absence of Macedonian-language broadcasting in public media undermines cultural visibility and language preservation.

Higher education opportunities
Despite legal guarantees, Macedonian is not taught at the University of Tirana or Fan S. Noli University of Korçë, not even as an elective. This contrasts with the teaching of Greek, Italian, and other languages, and has been flagged by monitoring bodies as a gap in implementation.

Representation in broadcasting governance.
Greek and Serbian minorities hold representation in the RTSH Steering Council, enabling them to advocate for language rights. Macedonians, however, are excluded, leaving their concerns—such as requests for Macedonian-language programming—unaddressed.

Political Representation and Participation in Decision-Making

The third set of challenges relates to the limited opportunities for the Macedonian minority to participate effectively in Albania’s political processes.

Municipal representation
The 2014 reform merged Golo Brdo and Gora into larger municipalities (Bulqizë, Librazhd, Kukës), preventing Macedonians from forming majorities in their communes and thereby blocking the practical application of the 20% language threshold. The OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities has underlined the importance of ensuring minority participation despite such territorial restructuring.

Parliamentary representation
Due to contested census results—5,512 Macedonians in 2011 and only 2,281 in 2023—Macedonian parties such as the Macedonian Alliance for European Integration (MAEI) have failed to reach electoral thresholds for parliamentary seats. Macedonian organisations argue that census undercounts distort their ability to gain fair representation, a concern echoed in OSCE/ODIHR election observation reports.

Representation in local administrations
Macedonians are underrepresented in state institutions outside Pustec. In Golo Brdo and Gora, they hold few or no positions in municipal councils, and services are generally delivered only in Albanian. This undermines both cultural and political participation.

Strengthening national minority institutions
The Committee of National Minorities, operating under the Council of Ministers, has a purely consultative role without binding powers. Both Macedonian organisations and other minorities advocate transforming it into an independent Agency of National Minorities, with stronger competencies to enforce minority rights. Similar recommendations have been made by the Council of Europe Advisory Committee, which stressed the need for institutional mechanisms with real authority to safeguard minority protection.

Conclusion and Call to Action

Despite Albania’s formal recognition of the Macedonian minority under the 2017 Law on the Protection of National Minorities, the reality on the ground reveals persistent gaps between legal commitments and actual implementation. The situation of the Macedonian minority demonstrates a pattern of partial recognition, uneven application of rights, and weak institutional enforcement. This has resulted in systemic marginalisation in education, language use, cultural life, and political participation, particularly outside Mala Prespa/Pustec.

International monitoring bodies, including the Council of Europe Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, and OSCE/ODIHR, have consistently highlighted these shortcomings, stressing the need for Albania to move beyond formal guarantees and ensure tangible and equitable implementation. The absence of such measures not only undermines Albania’s compliance with its international obligations but also perpetuates discrimination and erodes the trust of the Macedonian community in public institutions.

FUEN, as the umbrella organisation for Europe’s national minorities, therefore reiterates its commitment to supporting the Macedonian minority in Albania and calls on all relevant actors to take urgent and concrete steps:

FUEN calls on the Government of the Republic of Albania to respect and fully implement the Law on Minorities, adopted on 13 October 2017 (Law No. 96/2017), and to adopt the secondary regulations provided for in the law, given that more than five years have passed since its adoption without comprehensive enforcement.

FUEN calls on the Government Commissioner for Protection against Discrimination to ensure the effective implementation of the Minority Law and to monitor cases of unequal treatment or neglect of the Macedonian community at both national and local levels.

FUEN calls on the Government of the Republic of Albania to declare 21 May – the World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development – a national holiday, celebrated as the Day of National Minorities in Albania, thereby affirming the equal place of minorities in the country’s social and cultural fabric.

FUEN calls on European institutions, the United Nations, and the OSCE to intensify their monitoring of the situation of the Macedonian minority in Albania and to engage in constructive dialogue with the Albanian authorities to ensure concrete improvements.

FUEN calls on Albanian civil society and minority organisations to strengthen cooperation, advocacy, and dialogue both within the country and across borders, ensuring that the voice of the Macedonian minority continues to be heard at national and international levels.

Only through joint action by the Albanian government, the international community, and civil society can the rights of the Macedonian minority be safeguarded and the values of equality, cultural diversity, and inclusion—enshrined in European and international instruments—become a lived reality in Albania.

References

Albania. 2014. Law No. 115/2014 on the Administrative-Territorial Division of Local Government Units in the Republic of Albania. Official Gazette of the Republic of Albania.
https://qbz.gov.al 

Albania. 2017. Law No. 96/2017 on the Protection of National Minorities in the Republic of Albania. Official Gazette of the Republic of Albania.
https://qbz.gov.al 

Council of Europe. 1950. European Convention on Human Rights. Rome: Council of Europe.
https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf 

Council of Europe. 1995. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
https://www.coe.int/en/web/minorities/text-of-the-convention 

Council of Europe. Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. 2019. Fourth Opinion on Albania, adopted 2 July 2019. ACFC/OP/IV(2019)003. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
https://rm.coe.int/4th-opinion-on-albania-en/16809986d0 

Djordjević, Ljubica, and Zenaida Zaimi. “Commentary: The Law on Protection of National Minorities in the Republic of Albania.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 18, no. 1 (2019): 64–83; https://www.ecmi.de/fileadmin/redakteure/publications/JEMIE_Datens%C3%A4tze/Jemie_datens%C3%A4tze_2019/Djordjevic.pdf 

Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN). 2016–2024. Resolutions Submitted by the Macedonian Association “Ilinden” Tirana (2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024). Flensburg: FUEN.
https://fuen.org 

Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN). 2025. The Macedonian Minority in Albania and FUEN’s Commitment to Protecting Minority Rights. Internal Report.

Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). 1990. Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE. Copenhagen: OSCE.
https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/14304 

OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM). Various years. Recommendations and Communications on the Situation of the Macedonian Minority in Albania. The Hague: OSCE.
https://www.osce.org/hcnm 

OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). Various years. Election Observation Mission Final Reports: Republic of Albania. Warsaw: OSCE.
https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/albania 

United Nations. 1966. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. New York: United Nations.
https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights